Water Cycle In Ultrahot Jupiters

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Know About Ultrahot Jupiters And The Amazing Water Cycle Occuring In Them

The advancement in space science and technology is leading to ground breaking research and development in the field of space exploration by different space agencies worldwide. Astrophysicists are always curious to find, observe and study different exoplanets outside our solar system. In April this year, one of the leading space agency NASA launched its Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) system to study different exoplanets beyond our own solar system. Another recent achievement in the search of exoplanet by the leading space agency ISRO which made India in the list of among the top few countries to discover exoplanet beyond our own solar system. Several studies have revealed different types of exoplanets with their own unique characteristics. One new class of exoplanets spreading throughout the universe and increasingly visible to astronomers is known as 'Ultrahot Jupiter'. These immensely hot gaseous giants resemble the planet 'Jupiter' present in our solar system in shape and size but they are situated very close to their parent stars (much closer than Mercury from our sun) making them unbearably hot and thus the class name 'Ultrahot Jupiter'. One of their side face the star permanently thus having extreme weather conditions comprising of continuous sunny, extremely high temperature and no possibility of rainfall. This class of exoplanet show unique atmospheric characteristics than other classes of exoplanet due to lack of most of the necessary molecules. 

Researchers are triggered by the undeniable fact that there is no sign of water vapor in the atmospheres of the ultahot class of planets whereas similar systems which are slightly cooler shows abundance of water vapor in their atmospheres. A new theoretical study based on observations by NASA's Spitzer and Hubble space telescopes coupled with computer simulations have tried to solve the cause of this surprising scenario. They have stated that Ultrahot Jupiters do have atoms of hydrogen and oxygen required to form water vapor already present in its atmosphere. But the intense heat and radiation on the side of the planet facing the star broke apart the water molecules. Though it is difficult to observe the dark side of Ultrahot Jupiters, yet a model has been proposed on the phenomenon going on the dark side based on detail and repeated observations and analysis of the Ultrahot Jupiter known as WASP-121b. The study suggests that immensely heavy planetary winds shifts the broken atoms from the hotter to the dark cooler side where they can recombine to form vapor. This vapor waits till thrown again into the hotter side by the planetary winds where it will be broken apart again. This amazing water cycle occurs in such Ultrahot Jupiter types of planets and notable observation is that water molecule is not the only thing to recycle. Also  molecules of titanium oxide and aluminum oxide recycle in the dark side by forming vapor and raining down in liquid or fluid form. But still Ultrahot Jupiter's behavior are very much complex than their another counterpart known as 'Hot Jupiter'. 

Parker Getting Ready To Touch Sun

Credits: NASA/Johns Hopkins APL/Steve Gribben

NASA's Parker Solar Probe Gearing Up Will Be First Visit To Sun For Mankind

Mankind is touching new heights everyday with gradual advancement in science and technology. The vast sky above our head in a clear night sky has always raise curiosity about the different shining planets and stars. With the advancement in space science and technology astrophysicists are continuously studying different stars and planets within and beyond our solar system. Now another biggest mission in the history of mankind is to study our own star, our sun. NASA's Parker Solar Probe is getting all set for its historic mission to the sun with schedule launch on 11th August 2018 to study the brutal heat and radiation conditions thus providing the closest ever view of our own star. It will travel as close as approximately 4 million miles from the surface of the the sun while flying through its atmosphere which is closer than any other probes reached earlier. The Parker Probe will revolutionize the ongoing study of sun by imaging and measurement of the sun's outer atmosphere. It will also study the solar winds to know more about their nature and origin and to forecast changes that can affect life and technology on the Earth. Parker will fly its way through the place of origin of highest-energy particles and will experience an outer temperature of 1377 degree centigrade. To protect the probe as well as the instruments from the huge heat blast, a shield of 4.5-inch-thick made of carbon-composite will be used. The Parker Space Probe will start its journey with take off on United Launch Alliance Delta IV Heavy rocket from the Space Launch Complex 37 on Cape Canaveral Air Force Station situated in Florida. Teams are busy in the preparation of the launch scheduled at the opening of a 65-minute window at 3:33 am EDT on 11th August 2018. It will explore the heat and energy flow from sun's atmosphere and the possible reasons of acceleration of solar winds and particles. NASA will organize a series of media briefings before this historic launch which starts from 8th August 2018. The Parker Solar Probe will prove to be another giant leap for mankind in advance space technologies for future explorations.

 

Space Science and Technology (Part-V)- Discoveries of Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO)

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What did Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) discovered in Mars?

Here we continue with the last part of our blog on space science and technology. Those who have missed our fourth blog can read it from Here. It will help to connect with this last part of the blog discussing about the amazing discoveries made by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO). Let us explore the blog to find out these in more details. 

"Remember this: once the human race is established on more than one planet and especially, in more than one solar system, there is no way now imaginable to kill off the human race." "Earth is too small a basket for mankind to keep all its eggs in." "Once you get to earth orbit, you're halfway to anywhere in the solar system".

Some of the amazing discoveries made by the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) are as follows-

Measurement of Water Ice in Ice Caps 

Results published in 2009 of radar measurements of the north polar ice cap determined that the volume of water ice in the cap is 821,000 cubic kilometres (197,000 cu mi), equal to 30% of the Earth's Greenland ice sheet.

Exposing Ice in New Craters

An article in the journal Science in September 2009, reported that some new craters on Mars have excavated relatively pure water ice. After being exposed, the ice gradually fades as it sublimates away. These new craters were found and dated by the CTX camera, and the identification of the ice was confirmed with the Compact Imaging Spectrometer (CRISM) on board the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO). The ice was found in a total of five locations. Three of the locations are in the Cebrenia quadrangle. These locations are 55.57°N 150.62°E; 43.28°N 176.9°E; and 45°N 164.5°E. Two others are in the Diacria quadrangle: 46.7°N 176.8°E and 46.33°N 176.9°E.

Ice in Lobate Debris Aprons

Radar results from SHARAD suggested that features termed Lobate Debris Aprons (LDAs) contain large amounts of water ice. Of interest from the days of the Viking Orbiters, these LDA are aprons of material surrounding cliffs. They have a convex topography and a gentle slope; this suggests flow away from the steep source cliff. In addition, lobate debris aprons can show surface lineations just as rock glaciers on the Earth. SHARAD has provided strong evidence that the LDAs in Hellas Planitia are glaciers that are covered with a thin layer of debris (i.e. rocks and dust); a strong reflection from the top and base of LDAs was observed, suggesting that pure water ice makes up the bulk of the formation (between the two reflections). Based on the experiments of the Phoenix lander and the studies of the Mars Odyssey from orbit, water ice is known to exist just under the surface of Mars in the far north and south (high latitudes).

Other Aqueous Minerals

In 2009, a group of scientists from the CRISM team reported on 9 to 10 different classes of minerals formed in the presence of water. Different types of clays (also called phyllosilicates) were found in many locations. The physilicates identified included aluminium smectite, iron/magnesium smectite, kaolinite, prehnite, and chlorite. Rocks containing carbonate were found around the Isidis basin. Carbonates belong to one class in which life could have developed. Areas around Valles Marineris were found to contain hydrated silica and hydrated sulphates. The researchers identified hydrated sulphates and ferric minerals in Terra Meridian and in Valles Marineris. Other minerals found on Mars were jarosite, alunite, hematite, opal, and gypsum. Two to five of the mineral classes were formed with the right pH and sufficient water to permit life to grow.

Avalanches

The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter CTX and HiRISE cameras have photographed a number of avalanches off the scarps of the northern polar cap as they were occurring.

Space Science and Technology (Part-IV)- Structure, Power, Electronic and Telecommunication Systems of Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO)

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Find Out About the Different Structure, Power, Electronics and Telecommunication Systems Used in the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) 

Now we continue with the fourth part of our blog on space science and technology. Those who have missed our third blog can read it from Here. It will help to connect with this fourth part of the blog discussing in details about the structure, power, electronic and telecommunication systems used in the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO). Let us explore the blog to find out in more details. In words of Werner von Braun:

"A human being is the best computer available to place in a spacecraft. . . It is also the only one that can be mass produced with unskilled labor." "Our two greatest problems are gravity and paper work. We can lick gravity, but sometimes the paperwork is overwhelming." "I only hope that we shall not wait to adopt the program until after our astronomers have reported a new and unsuspected asteroid moving across their fields of vision with menacing speed. At that point it will be too late!"'

Structure of the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

Workers at Lockheed Martin Space Systems in Denver assembled the spacecraft structure and attached the instruments. Instruments were constructed at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, the University of Arizona Lunar and Planetary Laboratory in Tucson, Arizona, Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory in Laurel, Maryland, the Italian Space Agency in Rome, and Malin Space Science Systems in San Diego. The total cost of the spacecraft was $720 million USD. The structure is made of mostly carbon composites and aluminum-honeycombed plates. The titanium fuel tank takes up most of the volume and mass of the spacecraft and provides most of its structural integrity. The spacecraft's total mass is less than 2,180 kg (4,810 lb) with an unfuelled dry mass less than 1,031 kg (2,273 lb).

Power Systems

MRO gets all of its electrical power from two solar panels, each of which can move independently around two axes (up-down, or left-right rotation). Each solar panel measures 5.35 m × 2.53 m (17.6 ft × 8.3 ft) and has 9.5 m2 (102 sq ft) covered with 3,744 individual photovoltaic cells. Its high-efficiency triple junction solar cells are able to convert more than 26% of the Sun's energy directly into electricity and are connected together to produce a total output of 32 volts. At Mars, each of the panels produces more than 1,000 watts of power; in contrast, the panels would generate 3,000 watts in a comparable Earth orbit by being closer to the Sun. MRO has two rechargeable nickel-hydrogen batteries used to power the spacecraft when it is not facing the Sun. Each battery has an energy storage capacity of 50 ampere-hours (180 kC). The full range of the batteries cannot be used due to voltage constraints on the spacecraft, but allows the operators to extend the battery life—a valuable capability, given that battery drain is one of the most common causes of long-term satellite failure. Planners anticipate that only 40% of the batteries' capacities will be required during the lifetime of the spacecraft.

Electronic Systems

MRO's main computer is a 133 MHz, 10.4 million transistor, 32-bit, RAD750 processor. This processor is a radiation-hardened version of a PowerPC 750 or G3 processor with a specially built motherboard. The RAD750 is a successor to the RAD6000. This processor may seem underpowered in comparison to a modern PC processor, but it is extremely reliable, resilient, and can function in solar flare-ravaged deep space. The operating system software is VxWorks and has extensive fault protection protocols and monitoring. Data is stored in a 160 Gb (20 GB) flash memory module consisting of over 700 memory chips, each with a 256 Mbit capacity. This memory capacity is not actually that large considering the amount of data to be acquired; for example, a single image from the HiRISE camera can be as large as 28 Gb.

Telecommunications Systems

The Telecom Subsystem on MRO is the best digital communication system sent into deep space so far and for the first time using capacity approaching turbo-codes. The Electra communications package is a UHF software-defined radio (SDR) that provides a flexible platform for evolving relay capabilities. It is designed to communicate with other spacecraft as they approach, land, and operate on Mars. The system consists of a very large (3 m (9.8 ft)) antenna, which is used to transmit data through the Deep Space Network via X-band frequencies at 8 GHz, and it demonstrates the use of the Ka band at 32 GHz for higher data rates. Maximum transmission speed from Mars is projected to be as high as 6 Mbit/s, a rate ten times higher than previous Mars orbiters. The spacecraft carries two 100-watt X-band amplifiers (one of which is a backup), one 35-watt Ka-band amplifier, and two Small Deep Space Transponders (SDSTs). Two smaller low-gain antennas are also present for lower-rate communication during emergencies and special events, such as launch and Mars Orbit Insertion. These antennas do not have focusing dishes and can transmit and receive from any direction. They are an important backup system to ensure that MRO can always be reached, even if its main antenna is pointed away from the Earth.

Altitude Control

he spacecraft uses a 1,175 L (258 imp gal; 310 US gal) fuel tank filled with 1,187 kg (2,617 lb) of hydrazine monopropellant. Fuel pressure is regulated by adding pressurized helium gas from an external tank. Seventy percent of the propellant was used for orbital insertion, and it has enough propellant to keep functioning into the 2030s. MRO has twenty rocket engine thrusters on board. Six large thrusters each produce 170 N (38 lbf) of thrust for a total of 1,020 N (230 lbf) meant mainly for orbital insertion. These thrusters were originally designed for the Mars Surveyor 2001 Lander. Six medium thrusters each produce 22 N (4.9 lbf) of thrust for trajectory correction manoeuvres and attitude control during orbit insertion. Finally, eight small thrusters each produce 0.9 N (0.20 lbf) of thrust for attitude control during normal operations. Four reaction wheels are also used for precise attitude control during activities requiring a highly stable platform, such as high-resolution imaging, in which even small motions can cause blurring of the image. Each wheel is used for one axis of motion. The fourth (skewed) wheel is a backup in case one of the other three wheels fails. Each wheel weighs 10 kg (22 lb) and can be spun as fast as 100 Hz or 6,000 rpm. A primary and backup Miniature Inertial Measurement Unit (MIMU), provided by Honeywell, measures changes to the spacecraft attitude as well as any non-gravitational induced changes to its linear velocity. Each MIMU is a combination of three accelerometers and three ring-laser gyroscopes. These systems are all critically important to MRO, as it must be able to point its camera to a very high precision in order to take the high-quality pictures that the mission requires. It has also been specifically designed to minimize any vibrations on the spacecraft, so as to allow its instruments to take images without any distortions caused by vibrations.

Continued in the next blog...

Space Science and Technology (Part-III)- Advance Devices Used in the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO)

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Find Out in Details About the Advance Devices and Technologies Used in the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO)

Here we continue with the third part of our blog on space science and technology. Those who have missed our second blog can read it from Here. It will help to connect with this third part of the blog discussing in details about the different advance devices and technologies used in the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO). In our previous blog we presented a brief introduction about MRO, its objectives and about the launch of the spacecraft and now we dive into the advance devices and high-class technologies that were used in MRO. Let us explore the blog to find about those in more details. 

Three cameras, two spectrometers and a radar are included on the orbiter along with two "science-facility instruments", which use data from engineering subsystems to collect science data. Three technology experiments will test and demonstrate new equipment for future missions. It is expected MRO will obtain about 5,000 images per year.

HiRISE (Camera)

The High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment camera is a 0.5 m (1 feet 8 inches) reflecting telescope, the largest ever carried on a deep space mission, and has a resolution of 1 micro-radian (μrad), or 0.3 m (1 ft. 0 in.) from an altitude of 300 km (190 mi). In comparison, satellite images of Earth are generally available with a resolution of 0.5 m (1 ft. 8 in.), and satellite images on Google Maps are available to 1 m (3 ft. 3 in). HiRISE collects images in three colour bands, 400 to 600 nm (blue-green or B-G), 550 to 850 nm (red) and 800 to 1,000 nm (near infrared or NIR). Red colour images are 20,264 pixels across (6 km (3.7 mi) wide), and B-G and NIR are 4,048 pixels across (1.2 km (0.75 mi) wide). HiRISE's on-board computer reads these lines in time with the orbiter's ground speed, and images are potentially unlimited in length. Practically however, their length is limited by the computer's 28 Gigabit (Gb) memory capacity, and the nominal maximum size is 20,000 × 40,000 pixels (800 megapixels) and 4,000 × 40,000 pixels (160 megapixels) for B-G and NIR images. Each 16.4 Gb image is compressed to 5 Gb before transmission and release to the general public on the HiRISE website in JPEG 2000 format. To facilitate the mapping of potential landing sites, HiRISE can produce stereo pairs of images from which topography can be calculated to an accuracy of 0.25 m (9.8 in). HiRISE was built by Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp.

CTX (Camera)

The Context Camera (CTX) provides grayscale images (500 to 800 nm) with a pixel resolution up to about 6 m (20 feet). CTX is designed to provide context maps for the targeted observations of HiRISE and CRISM, and is also used to mosaic large areas of Mars, monitor a number of locations for changes over time, and to acquire stereo (3D) coverage of key regions and potential future landing sites. The optics of CTX consist of a 350 mm (14 in) focal length Maksutov Cassegrain telescope with a 5,064 pixel wide line array CCD. The instrument takes pictures 30 km (19 mi) wide and has enough internal memory to store an image 160 km (99 mi) long before loading it into the main computer. The camera was built, and is operated by Malin Space Science Systems. CTX mapped 50% of Mars by February 2010.

MARCI (Camera)

The Mars Colour Imager (MARCI) is a wide-angle, relatively low-resolution camera that views the surface of Mars in five visible and two ultraviolet bands. Each day, MARCI collects about 84 images and produces a global map with pixel resolutions of 1 to 10 km (0.62 to 6.21 mi). This map provides a daily weather report for Mars, helps to characterize its seasonal and annual variations, and maps the presence of water vapour and ozone in its atmosphere. The camera was built and is operated by Malin Space Science Systems. It has a 180-degree fisheye lens with the seven colour filters bonded directly on a single CCD sensor.

CRISM (Spectrometer)

The Compact Reconnaissance Imaging Spectrometer for Mars (CRISM) instrument is a visible and near infrared (VNIR) spectrometer that is used to produce detailed maps of the surface mineralogy of Mars. It operates from 370 to 3920 nm, measures the spectrum in 544 channels (each 6.55 nm wide), and has a resolution of 18 m (59 feet) at an altitude of 300 km (190 mi). CRISM is being used to identify minerals and chemicals indicative of the past or present existence of water on the surface of Mars. 

Mars Climate Sounder

The Mars Climate Sounder (MCS) looks both down and horizontally through the atmosphere in order to quantify the global atmosphere's vertical variations. It is a spectrometer with one visible/near infrared channel (0.3 to 3.0 μm) and eight far infrared (12 to 50 μm) channels selected for the purpose. MCS observes the atmosphere on the horizon of Mars (as viewed from MRO) by breaking it up into vertical slices and taking measurements within each slice in 5 km (3.1 mi) increments. These measurements are assembled into daily global weather maps to show the basic variables of Martian weather: temperature, pressure, humidity, and dust density.

SHARAD (Radar)

SHARAD is designed to operate in conjunction with the Mars Express MARSIS, which has lower resolution but penetrates to a much greater depth. Both SHARAD and MARSIS were made by the Italian Space Agency.

Engineering Instruments

In addition to its imaging equipment, MRO carries a variety of engineering instruments. The Gravity Field Investigation Package measures variations in the Martian gravitational field through variations in the spacecraft's velocity. Velocity changes are detected by measuring doppler shifts in MRO's radio signals received on Earth. The package also includes sensitive onboard accelerometers used to deduce the in situatmospheric density of Mars during aero braking. The Optical Navigation Camera images the Martian moons, Phobos and Deimos, against background stars to precisely determine MRO's orbit. Although moon imaging is not mission critical, it was included as a technology test for future orbiting and landing of spacecraft. The Optical Navigation Camera was tested successfully in February and March 2006. There is a proposal to search for small moons, dust rings, and old orbiters with it.

Continued in the next blog...

Space Science and Technology (Part-II)- Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO)

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Know Everything About the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO)

Now we continue with the second part of our blog on space science and technology. Those who have missed our first blog can read it from Here. It will help to connect with this second part of the blog discussing about the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO). Let us explore the blog to find out in more details. In words of Denis Waitley:

"The winners in life treat their body as if it were a magnificent spacecraft that gives them the finest transportation and endurance for their lives".

With the evolution of human civilization, various thing changed in human lifestyle due to the development and enhancement of modern technologies. Now the technologies are used even in space outside earth and also moved to neighboring planets, to capture various celestial information. We can take an example of such a spacecraft known as Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO). 

Introduction to Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) 

Mars  Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) is a multipurpose spacecraft designed to conduct reconnaissance and exploration of Mars from orbit. The US$720 million spacecraft was built by Lockheed Martin under the supervision of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory(JPL). The mission is managed by the California Institute of Technology, at the JPL, in Pasadena, California, for the NASA Science Mission Directorate, Washington, D.C. It was launched August 12, 2005, and attained Martian orbit on March 10, 2006. In November 2006, after five months of aero-braking, it entered its final science orbit and began its primary science phase. As MRO entered orbit, it joined five other active spacecraft that were either in orbit or on the planet's surface: Mars Global Surveyor, Mars Express, 2001 Mars Odyssey, and the two Mars Exploration Rovers (Spirit and Opportunity); at the time, this set a record for the most operational spacecraft in the immediate vicinity of Mars. Mars Global Surveyor and the Spirit rover have since ceased to function; the remainder remain operational as of April 2018. MRO contains a host of scientific instruments such as cameras, spectrometers, and radar, which are used to analyse the landforms, stratigraphy, minerals, and ice of Mars. It paves the way for future spacecraft by monitoring Mars' daily weather and surface conditions, studying potential landing sites, and hosting a new telecommunications system.

Objectives of the Mission

MRO science operations were initially scheduled to last two Earth years, from November 2006 to November 2008. One of the mission's main goals is to map the Martian landscape with its high-resolution cameras in order to choose landing sites for future surface missions. The MRO played an important role in choosing the landing site of the Phoenix Lander, which explored the Martian Arctic in Green Valley. The initial site chosen by scientists was imaged with the HiRISE camera and found to be littered with boulders. After analysis with HiRISE and the Mars Odyssey's THEMIS instrument a new site was chosen. Mars Science Laboratory, a highly maneuverable rover, also had its landing site inspected. The MRO provided critical navigation data during their landings and acts as a telecommunications relay.

Launching the Spacecraft

MRO is using its on-board scientific equipment to study the Martian climate, weather, atmosphere, and geology, and to search for signs of liquid water in the polar caps and underground. In addition, MRO was tasked with looking for the remains of the previously lost Mars Polar Lander and Beagle 2 spacecraft. Beagle 2 was found by the orbiter at the beginning of 2015. After its main science operations are completed, the probe's extended mission is to be the communication and navigation system for landers and rover probes. On August 12, 2005, MRO was launched aboard an Atlas V-401 rocket from Space Launch Complex 41 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. The Centaur upper stage of the rocket completed its burns over a fifty-six-minute period and placed MRO into an interplanetary transfer orbit towards Mars. MRO cruised through interplanetary space for seven and a half months before reaching Mars. While in route most of the scientific instruments and experiments were tested and calibrated. To ensure proper orbital insertion upon reaching Mars, four trajectory correction manoeuvres were planned and a fifth emergency manoeuvre was discussed. However, only three trajectory correction manoeuvres were necessary, which saved 60 pounds (27 kg) fuel that would be usable during MRO's extended mission.

Continued in the next blog...

Space Science and Technology (Part-I)- Introduction and Brief History

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A Brief Introduction and History of Space Exploration with the Development in Space Science and Technology

Space exploration is the discovery and exploration of celestial structures in outer space by means of evolving and growing space technology. While the study of space is carried out mainly by astronomers with telescopes, the physical exploration of space is conducted both by unmanned robotic space probes and human spaceflight. While the observation of objects in space, known as astronomy, predates reliable recorded history, it was the development of large and relatively efficient rockets during the mid-twentieth century that allowed physical space exploration to become a reality. Common rationales for exploring space include advancing scientific research, national prestige, uniting different nations, ensuring the future survival of humanity, and developing military and strategic advantages against other countries. Space exploration has often been used as a proxy competition for geopolitical rivalries such as the Cold War. The early era of space exploration was driven by a "Space Race" between the Soviet Union and the United States. The launch of the first human-made object to orbit Earth, the Soviet Union's Sputnik 1, on 4 October 1957, and the first Moon landing by the American Apollo 11 mission on 20 July 1969 are often taken as landmarks for this initial period. The Soviet Space Program achieved many of the first milestones, including the first living being in orbit in 1957, the first human spaceflight (Yuri Gagarin aboard Vostok 1) in 1961, the first spacewalk (by Aleksei Leonov) on 18 March 1965, the first automatic landing on another celestial body in 1966, and the launch of the first space station (Salyut 1) in 1971. After the first 20 years of exploration, focus shifted from one-off flights to renewable hardware, such as the Space Shuttle program, and from competition to cooperation as with the International Space Station (ISS).

With the substantial completion of the ISS following STS-133 in March 2011, plans for space exploration by the U.S. remain in flux. Constellation, a Bush Administration program for a return to the Moon by 2020 was judged inadequately funded and unrealistic by an expert review panel reporting in 2009. The Obama Administration proposed a revision of Constellation in 2010 to focus on the development of the capability for crewed missions beyond low Earth orbit (LEO), envisioning extending the operation of the ISS beyond 2020, transferring the development of launch vehicles for human crews from NASA to the private sector, and developing technology to enable missions to beyond LEO, such as Earth–Moon L1, the Moon, Earth–Sun L2, near-Earth asteroids, and Phobos or Mars orbit. In the 2000s, the People's Republic of China initiated a successful manned spaceflight program, while the European Union, Japan, and India have also planned future crewed space missions. China, Russia, Japan, and India have advocated crewed missions to the Moon during the 21st century, while the European Union has advocated manned missions to both the Moon and Mars during the 20th and 21st century. From the 1990s onwards, private interests began promoting space tourism and then public space exploration of the Moon.

Continued in the next blog...

The TESS Mission of NASA

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Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) of NASA to boost its search for exoplanets beyond our solar system

National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), one of the space-explorer giant on this planet is on its unique mission to search for different exoplanets beyond our solar system. The main hope for this mission to the NASA scientists is their Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite system or in short TESS. This giant leap for the search of exoplanets beyond our solar system that could support life by blocking the light from its parent star in a periodic manner or the event is better known as Transits. The TESS system launched today on 16th April, 2018 will search for nearly 20,000 brightest stars near the sun beyond our solar system to search for a possible exoplanet that could support life. Scientists at NASA hope that this TESS system will help to vastly increase the current number of known exoplanets and will enable future researchers for comprehensive follow-up studies by providing a rich set of new targets. It is expected that the new exoplanets that will be discovered by TESS will contain both earth-sized planet and giant planets no longer than twice the size of earth. The TESS will survey the entire sky for two long years dividing it into different sectors and will only investigate the stars 30 to 100 times brighter than those of Kepler mission. The main principle behind transit method for searching exoplanets is to search for dip in visible light or apparent brightness of the stars and periodic dips enable researchers to study a lot about the exoplanets. The size of a planet can be determined from the amount of dip in light the planet causes to its star and the shape of the planet and its time for revolution around its sun can also be determined. This transmit photometry method will enable TESS to create a lists of thousands of exoplanets which after compiling will confirm the truth of the exoplanet by ground-based follow-up observations. The ground based telescopes will collaborate with other to determine the masses of the planet. The above data will help to determine the planet's compositions using ground-based follow-up systems. This will further confirm the nature of those giants if they are rocky, gaseous or something unusual matter. The atmosphere of these exoplanets will be studied by following-up with different ground- and space-based missions. Thus the TESS mission will give a broad overview of numerous exoplanets nearest to our solar system and will surely enable us to discover some earth or giant-sized planets that have the capability to support life on it.

Source: NASA